Psalm 99
I am not sure whether to classify this language as extinct. In terms of numbers, it has – if I am lucky – fewer speakers than I have subscribers.
However, this language you will read about across this and the following four newsletters is, without a doubt, dead. For you see, Dixon returned to Queensland a few decades after his initial research. Within that time, Dyirbal had become little more than a re-skinned English.
More shocking, however, is that when he attempted the old form, even his own previous informants struggled to remember that they ever spoke this form of Dyirbal.
This is one of the most extreme cases of Language Death ever recorded. I give Language Death capital letters because it is, without getting too deep into the theory, an unpredictable factor affecting language change.
In his grammar, Dixon studies 3 (out of around 12) dialects: Dyirbal, Mamu and Girramay. Like him, I will take “Dyirbal” as the default name. Their grammars are almost identical, and they have over 70% vocabulary in common.
Dyirbal belongs to the Cairns Rainforest in North-East Queensland. The Dyirbal area is defined by the Coral Sea to the East, and High Tableland to the West. The area abounds in waterfalls and swamps.
Important rivers include the Tully, Murray, and North & South Johnstone. The only town of any real size (at least by the 1970’s) was Innisfail at the mouth of the North Johnstone, which lies at the northernmost end.
Other languages include Wargamay to the south, Mbababram and Yidiñ to the North, and Waruŋu to the West. All these belong to (different) branches of the Pama-Nyungan language family.
Some Dyirbal speakers could get by in Waruŋu, and all Waruŋu speakers had at least some basic Dyirbal. Giramay was the southern-most dialect of Dyirbal, and contact between them and the Wargamay was roughly equal.
Mbabaram and Yidiñ required some specialisation, since their contact began much more recently.
Here is my Dyirbal translation. You can read the whole thing in your physical Bible at home.
1. Giña daŋgil baŋgul Wurbamuŋagu baŋgan; muraynbila walawala; Bayi ñiyiŋga ñinañu; giña gambil nalŋi.
2. Bayi Wurbamuŋa Gabalngabarra gagirr; Bayidayu muraynbila muraynbilaŋunu.
3. Ŋinu dyugi dira marbamuŋawandya; ŋuri baladawulu.
4. Baŋgul gubiŋgu guliŋgu ŋurigabun daruban; ŋinda balan burrula balbulumban, ŋindaŋunu ŋurigabun Ŋurugu balbulubin
5. Bayi yugubara Wurbamuŋa walmbi, dyinaŋga bandubanari: ŋuri bayidawulu.
6. Yilwu Durmari balagara bayi gubi, Bayi Ŋuñaŋu balamaŋgan wandyaŋañu bagu dyiragu: wandyañu Wurbamuŋa, ŋuri wandyaŋañu bagumaŋgangu.
7. Baŋgu garmbandu dyanaŋuru gibarrŋaru wurbañu; bala dyinaŋunu yalgay, bagu gibarrgu bayi bilaŋañu gañdyamalganiñu,
8. Wurbamuŋa Yugubara, ŋinda ŋarrin; ŋinda walmbin, yama ŋurigabun mugu balbulumbali.
9. Wurbamuŋa Yugubara walmbi, bagulbaydyi bandubanari, ŋuri Wurbamuŋa Yugubara bayibaydyu.
Psalm 99:1
KJV. The LORD reigneth; let the people tremble: he sitteth between the cherubims; let the earth be moved.
Dyirbal. Giña daŋgil baŋgul Wurbamuŋagu baŋgan; muraynbila walawala; Bayi ñiyiŋga ñinañu; giña gambil nalŋi.
Giña daŋgil baŋgul Wurbamuŋagu baŋgan = the Lord paints the rivers with a finger
Giña daŋgil = did to a/the river
baŋgul Wurbamuŋagu = the One Who Speaks does
baŋgan = paints with a finger/writes
It took me quite a long time to find a satisfying translation for the Hebrew Yahweh (יהוה). This is because it comes from Hebrew hayah (היה) to be, to exist, and Dyirbal is a language with zero word for to be.
Instead, I created bayi Wurbamuŋa. The second word has two components:
1. wurbay = to say, to speak.
2. -muŋa = Someone Who does X habitually.
If God is bayi Wurbamuŋa, then are you bayi/balan ŋambamuŋa one who listens habitually?
It’s bayi for men and balan for women.
muraynbila walawala = let the people shake
muraynbila = people
walawala = shake!
muraynbila aboriginal person was the only word for person that I could find.
walawala comes from walawalay dance in the shake-a-leg style.
Bayi ñiyiŋga ñinañu = he sits among the Cherubim
Bayi = he
ñiyiŋga = in the noise of birds
ñinañu = sits
Dyirbal balan ñiyi = English the noise of birds, indicating that something is moving on the ground.
This could refer to squawking, and it certainly refers to flapping.
The etymology of Hebrew keroob (כרוב) is not well known. It may come from an unused root meaning to guard or to cover.
The Cherubim first appear in Genesis 3:24. They watch Adam and Eve leave the Garden of Eden in shame.
We get many mentions throughout Exodus, but we only get a full description of one in Ezekiel 1. This confirms that they have wings, the only detail given throughout Exodus.
Other passages within the Bible imply that other ranks of angels can pass without you noticing. So it is possible that a Cherub can look different or hide his appearance.
In case you’re wondering, Dyirbal balan maraba = English generic bird.
This is very close to marbay frighten, which almost always involves a ghost or spirit.
giña gambil nalŋi = let the mountains be shaken
giña gambil = mountain, tableland
nalŋi = shake!
Dyirbal nalŋil = English shake or sieve.
This is close to bayi nalŋalnalŋal small, stinging black ants.
What with this being Australia, even the black ants are out to get you.
Psalm 99:2
KJV. The LORD is great in Zion; and he is high above all the people.
Dyirbal. Bayi Wurbamuŋa Gabalngabarra gagirr; Bayidayu muraynbila muraynbilaŋunu.
Bayi Wurbamuŋa Gabalngabarra gagirr = Yahweh is great in Zion
Bayi Wurbamuŋa = Yahweh
Gabalngabarra = in Zion
Gagirr = is large.
Zion comes from Hebrew tseeyah (ציה) dryness, desert, drought.
For this, I use bala gabalngabal sandy ridge.
This, itself, comes from bala gabal sand.
In archaeology, a “tell” is an artificial hill made from regularly burning a house or village to the ground, and then re-building on the exact same site.
I mention this because Dyirbal has multiple dialects.
In other dialects, the word for sand is waguy.
This is one vowel away from the more Dyirbal-versal wagay to use a spear when you cannot see what you a spearing.
This relates to the original meaning of sin – to miss the mark.
Bayidayu muraynbila muraynbilaŋunu = He is high above all the people
Bayidayu = He is a long distance above
muraynbila = person
muraynbilaŋunu = from the person
bayidayu has two components:
1. bayi = he.
2. -dayu = a long distance above (lit. uphill).
In Dyirbal, you indicate being up-/downhill or –river with a complex series of Suffixes that attach the Noun Marker. (I will explain Noun Markers after we have seen a few more.) There are two other “Uphill” Suffixes:
1. -daya = medium distance uphill.
2. -dayi = short distance uphill.
In this system, River is the marked feature.
The “hill” can refer to a tree, cliff, or anything else not involving water.
With a few exceptions – all fossils – Dyirbal has no Plural forms. If you want to specify 3 or more of something, you reduplicate the entire noun.
(Plurality refers to 3+ because there exists a Dual Suffix –dyaran.)
Psalm 99:3
In the KJV, “it” is holy. In the NJV, “he” is holy.
BibleHub Interlinear gives us He with a capital H, implying the latter.
In Hebrew, shem (שם) name is a Masculine Noun. It could go either way.
For context, Hebrew has 2 Grammatical Genders; Dyirbal has 4.
KJV: Let them praise thy great and terrible name; for it is holy.
Dyirbal. Ŋinu dyugi dira marbamuŋawandya; ŋuri baladawulu.
Ŋinu dyugi dira marbamuŋa wandya = let them praise thy great and terrible name
Ŋinu dira = thy name
dyugi = large
marbamuŋa = frightening
wandya = (let them) call!
Dyirbal bala dira = English tooth, name.
There is one difference between dyugi here and gagirr in the previous verse.
dyugi belongs to Guwal, while gagirr belongs to Dyalŋuy.
Guwal is everyday language. You use Dyalŋuy in the presence of a taboo relative (you would never look at a taboo relative, let alone speak to them.)
All taboo relations are symmetrical. They are:
1. Opposite-sex parent- or child-in-law.
2. Opposite-sex cross-cousin.
Cross-cousin = your cousins from your parents’ opposite-sex siblings, i.e. your father’s sister or mother’s brother.
Dyirbal marriage is based on Section Membership. People in category 2 belong to the section from which you must marry, but are too close genetically.
ŋuri baladawulu = because it is holy
ŋuri = because
baladawulu = it is a long distance upriver
holy comes from Hebrew kadash (קדש) set apart, separate.
baladawulu has two components:
1. bala = it (is).
2. -dawulu = a long way upriver.
I chose bala it rather than bayi he because it provides more alliteration.
I chose to use a River form for the symbolism. There are far too many verses from which to choose.
My favourite is the one in Kings where Jesse’s axe falls into the Jordan, then floats back up, having been cleansed.
For context, metalworking comes from the line of Cain, and is therefore cursed unless otherwise cleaned.
The Particle ŋuri normally translates into English as trade, turn or exchange.
In all cases, it indicates some sort of balance.
Because His name is holy, you must praise it. Because you praise His name, it is holy.
Psalm 99:4
KJV. The king’s strength also loveth judgment; thou dost establish equity, thou executest judgment and righteousness in Jacob.
Dyirbal. Baŋgul gubiŋgu guliŋgu ŋurigabun daruban; ŋinda balan burrula balbulumban, ŋindaŋunu ŋurigabun Ŋurugu balbulubin.
Baŋgul gubiŋgu guliŋgu ŋurigabun daruban = the strong king loves judgment
Baŋgul gubiŋgu = the Wise Man does
guliŋgu = strong/sweet
ŋurigabun = judgment
daruban = immerses in water
What is a bayi gubi?
To become a bayi gubi, one needs:
1. a thorough understanding of the environment
2. extensive knowledge of tribal customs and beliefs
3. to be willing to cure diseases, both through medicine and psychological relief.
However, what you know only matter to a certain extent. You need to drink human blood.
Here is a direct quote from Dixon’s grammar:
“The last known cannibalism was in 1940, when an aboriginal man was deliberately killed for excessive sexual misconduct. The gubi who was prime mover was arrested and spend about a dozen years in jail, but has now returned to the tribal territory. He was probably the most knowledgeable of the informants the writer used.”
The Dyirbal have no specific ritual for killing someone and they never practiced cannibalism for its own sake. It was always the punishment for a crime.
The senior men ate from his flesh, and they offered his blood to the younger men.
ŋinda balan burrula balbulumban = you establish equity
ŋinda = you
balan burrula = fighting ground
balbulumban = wash downstream
The fighting ground is where young men would prove themselves against each other.
God, of course, can wipe that away at any point.
balbulumbal wash downstream and balbulubil go downriver are both Dyalŋuy words.
I chose the former for the alliteration, and the latter for the same reason.
Dyirbal –balbulu = a long way downriver.
ŋindaŋunu ŋurigabun Ŋurugu balbulubin = you execute judgment in Jacob
ŋindaŋunu = from you
ŋurigabun = judgment
Ŋuru-gu = to Jacob
balbulubin = flows downriver
Jacob comes from Hebrew aqeb (עקב) heel, track.
Dyirbal ŋuru = English heel, heelmark.
ŋurigabun has two components:
1. ŋuri = Exchange, In Turn.
2. -gabun = Another.
It means something like “revenge for a previous act of revenge”.
We see ŋurigabun earlier in this verse. Why did I daruban immerse it in water?
The traditional Dyirbal diet involved seven staple vegetables that needed extensive preparation. On example is mirañ Castanospernum austral (or black bean).
The last two stages involve slicing the beans into very thin slices with a snail-shell and then leaving them in a dilly-bag in a river for a few days.
If you do this correctly, you wash away the bitterness.
Psalm 99:5
KJV: Exalt ye the LORD our God and worship at his footstool; for he is holy.
Dyirbal. Bayi yugubara Wurbamuŋa walmbi, dyinaŋga bandubanari: ŋuri bayidawulu.
Bayi yugubara Wurbamuŋa walmbi = exalt the Lord our God
Bayi yugubara = the spirit of
Wurbamuŋa = Yahweh
walmbi = lift him up!
God comes from Hebrew eloheem (אלהים), the plural form of el (אל).
I took bayi yugubara, which may have two components:
1. bala yugu = tree, stick, wood.
2. -bara = something to do with.
I say “may” because I could not find confirmation in Dixon’s grammar.
Anyway, why would spirits be connected with trees?
We left the Garden of Eden because we ate some fruit before it was ripe for eating, and before our stomachs were developed enough to digest it.
In two consecutive verses, we see the echoes of Christ’s story in Dyirbal natural thrology.
There also exists balan yugu fire, but only in the Girramay dialect.
dyinaŋga bandubanari = worship at his footstall
dyinaŋga = at (His) feet
bandubanari = bend yourself!
bandubanari has two components:
1. bandubana = bend something over.
2. -ri = do to yourself!
This –ri is the Imperative form of the Reflexive –riy.
dyinaŋga at (His) foot/feet comes from bala dyina foot.
Now, if you add /-ri/, you get bala dyinari root under water.
This second /-ri/ is not a Productive Suffix, but I wanted to include it anyway.
ŋuri bayidawulu = for He is holy
ŋuri = because
bayidawulu = he is a long way upriver.
Unlike Verse 3, this one mentions Yahweh by name, so I use bayi he.
Since there’s nothing else new, I shall give a quick overview of the Dyirbal Gender.
The Dyirbal language has 4 Genders, they are thus:
1. bayi = Masculine
2. balan = Feminine
3. balam = Edible Fruit & Veg.
4. bala = Miscellaneous (Neuter?)
This overview, of course, skips over its quirks.
For example, most animals belong to bayi and balan, though more belong to the former.
Fire and Water belong to balan, along with most weapons.
The sun and stars belong to balan; the moon and storms belong to bayi.
These work more along the lines of basic concepts.
Sources:
R.M.W. Dixon, The Dyirbal Language of North Queensland (Cambridge: University Press 1972)
The cheeky google search for everything else.